Is Animal Protein Better Than Plant Protein

Protein is an essential macronutrient, but not all food sources of protein are created equal, and you lot may not need as much as you call back. Larn the nuts about protein and shaping your diet with salubrious protein foods.

Spring to:
–What is protein?
–How much protein do I need?
–Information technology's all virtually the protein "package"
–Research on protein and human health
–Poly peptide foods and the planet
–The lesser line: choosing healthy protein foods
–[Quiz] Exam your protein knowledge!

What Is Poly peptide?

Protein is found throughout the body—in musculus, bone, skin, hair, and almost every other body office or tissue. It makes upwards the enzymes that power many chemic reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood. At least x,000 different proteins make yous what you are and keep you that style.

Protein is made from xx-plus bones edifice blocks called amino acids. Considering we don't store amino acids, our bodies brand them in two different ways: either from scratch, or by modifying others. 9 amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from food.

How Much Protein Do I Need?

The National Academy of Medicine recommends that adults get a minimum of 0.eight grams of poly peptide for every kilogram of body weight per day, or but over vii grams for every xx pounds of body weight. [1]

• For a 140-pound person, that means nigh l grams of protein each 24-hour interval.
• For a 200-pound person, that ways about 70 grams of protein each solar day.

The National Academy of Medicine also sets a wide range for acceptable protein intake—anywhere from 10% to 35% of calories each day. Beyond that, there'southward relatively little solid data on the ideal amount of poly peptide in the diet or the healthiest target for calories contributed by protein. In an analysis conducted at Harvard amid more 130,000 men and women who were followed for up to 32 years, the percentage of calories from total protein intake was non related to overall mortality or to specific causes of death. [two] However, the source of poly peptide was of import.

What are "consummate" proteins, and how much do I need?

"Pure" poly peptide, whether derived from plant or animal foods, probably has like furnishings on health, although the mix of amino acids tin have health implications. Some proteins found in food are "complete," significant they contain all twenty-plus types of amino acids needed to make new poly peptide in the torso. Others are incomplete, lacking one or more of the nine essential amino acids, which our bodies can't make from scratch or from other amino acids. Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be proficient sources of consummate protein, while plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds) often lack one or more than essential amino acid. Those who abstain from eating animal-based foods tin eat a variety of protein-containing constitute foods each day in gild to go all the amino acids needed to brand new protein, and also cull to incorporate consummate found proteins like quinoa and chia seeds.

It's important to note that millions of people worldwide, especially young children, don't get enough protein due to food insecurity. The effects of protein deficiency and malnutrition range in severity from growth failure and loss of muscle mass to decreased immunity, weakening of the heart and respiratory system, and death.

All the same, it's uncommon for healthy adults in the U.Southward. and most other adult countries to have a deficiency, considering in that location'due south an abundance of constitute and animal-based foods total of protein. In fact, many in the U.S. are consuming more than than enough protein, especially from animal-based foods. [three]

It's All About the Protein "Package"

When nosotros eat foods for poly peptide, we as well eat everything that comes alongside it: the different fats, fiber, sodium, and more. It'southward this protein "packet" that's likely to make a difference for health.

The table beneath shows a sample of food "packages" sorted by protein content, aslope a range of components that come with information technology.

Table: Comparison poly peptide packages

To telephone call out a few examples:

• A four-ounce broiled sirloin steak is a slap-up source of poly peptide—about 33 grams worth. But information technology as well delivers well-nigh 5 grams of saturated fat.
• A 4-ounce ham steak with 22 grams of protein has only 1.6 grams of saturated fatty, but it's loaded with one,500 milligrams worth of sodium.
• four ounces of grilled sockeye salmon has about 30 grams of protein, naturally depression in sodium, and contains but over ane gram of saturated fat. Salmon and other fatty fish are besides splendid sources of omega-three fats, a blazon of fat that's peculiarly skillful for the center.
• A cup of cooked lentils provides well-nigh eighteen grams of protein and xv grams of fiber, and it has about no saturated fatty or sodium.

What virtually protein powders?

Powdered protein tin come up from a variety of sources, including eggs, milk (e.g., casein, whey), and plants (east.grand., soybeans, peas, hemp). Some protein powders incorporate protein from multiple sources; for instance, a vegan option might include poly peptide derived from peas, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and alfalfa. Like other dietary supplements, poly peptide powders are not regulated past the U.S. Food and Drug Assistants for rubber. They tin can often contain non-poly peptide ingredients, including vitamins and minerals, thickeners, added sugars, non-caloric sweeteners, and artificial flavoring. If y'all choose to consume protein powder, it is important to read the nutrition and ingredient labels beforehand, as products may comprise unexpected ingredients and big amounts of added sugars and calories.

Learn more about protein powders and other conditioning supplements

Research on Protein and Wellness

Available bear witness indicates that it's the source of poly peptide (or, the protein "parcel"), rather than the amount of protein, that likely makes a difference for our health. You can explore the research related to each affliction in the tabs below, but here'due south the evidence-based takeaway: eating healthy protein sources like beans, nuts, fish, or poultry in place of reddish meat and processed meat can lower the adventure of several diseases and premature expiry.

Heart illness

Inquiry conducted at the Harvard Chan School of Public Wellness has found that eating even small amounts of red meat—especially processed cherry-red meat—on a regular basis is linked to an increased gamble of heart illness and stroke, and the risk of dying from cardiovascular disease or whatever other cause. [4-half-dozen] Conversely, replacing cherry-red and processed scarlet meat with good for you protein sources such equally beans, soy foods, basics, fish, or poultry seems to reduce these risks. I of the reasons why plant sources of poly peptide are related to lower take chances of cardiovascular disease compared to poly peptide from scarlet meat and dairy is because of the dissimilar types of fat in these protein packages. Plant-based protein sources are more than unsaturated, which lowers LDL cholesterol—an established chance factor for heart disease. Likewise, plant sources contain no cholesterol. Other factors are likely to contribute to the lower risk, just this is a key factor.

• I investigation followed 120,000 men and women in the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-Up Study for more than than two decades. For every boosted 3-ounce serving of unprocessed red meat the study participants consumed each day, their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease increased by xiii%. [5]
  • Processed red meat was even more than strongly linked to dying from cardiovascular illness—and in smaller amounts: every additional ane.5 ounce serving of candy cherry meat consumed each day (equivalent to 1 hot dog or two strips of bacon) was linked to a 20% increase in the adventure of cardiovascular disease death.
  • Cutting back on red meat could save lives: the researchers estimated that if all the men and women in the written report had reduced their total carmine and processed crimson meat intake to less than half a serving a 24-hour interval, ane in ten cardiovascular affliction deaths would have been prevented.
• In some other study of 43,000 men that looked at both corporeality and sources of protein found that intake of total poly peptide was minimally associated with heart affliction take a chance, but intake of protein from blood-red meat was associated with higher chance. [7]

• Some other study—the kickoff meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials looking at the health effects of red meat by substituting information technology for other specific types of foods—found that diets that replaced red meat with good for you plant proteins led to decreases in risk factors for cardiovascular affliction. [28]
  • The written report included data from 36 randomized controlled trials involving ane,803 participants. The researchers compared people who ate diets with red meat with people who ate more than of other types of foods (i.e. chicken, fish, carbohydrates, or plant proteins such every bit legumes, soy, or nuts), looking at blood concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and blood pressure—all hazard factors for cardiovascular disease.
  • Researchers found that when diets with ruddy meat were compared with all other types of diets combined, at that place were no significant differences in total cholesterol, lipoproteins, or blood pressure, although diets higher in cherry-red meat did lead to higher triglyceride concentrations than the comparing diets.
  • Still, researchers institute that diets higher in high-quality plant protein sources such as legumes, soy, and nuts resulted in lower levels of both total and LDL ("bad") cholesterol compared to diets with red meat.

  In terms of theamount of protein consumed, there's bear witness that eating a relatively loftier-protein nutrition may be benign for the center, as long as the protein comes from a healthy source.

  • A 20-year prospective study of over 80,000 women found that those who ate depression-carbohydrate diets that were high in plant-based sources of fat and protein had a thirty%lower run a risk of heart affliction compared with women who ate high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets. [8] All the same, eating a depression-carbohydrate diet high in brute fatty or poly peptide did not offer such protection.
  • Farther prove of the middle benefits of eating salubrious protein in place of sugar comes from a randomized trial known as the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial for Heart Wellness (OmniHeart). A good for you diet that replaced some carbohydrate with healthy protein (or salubrious fat) did a improve task of lowering claret pressure and harmful depression-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol than a higher carbohydrate diet. [nine]
  • Similarly, the "EcoAtkins" weight loss trial compared a low-fat, loftier -sugar, vegetarian nutrition to a low-carbohydrate vegan nutrition that was high in vegetable poly peptide and fat. Though weight loss was similar on the two diets, report participants on the high protein nutrition saw improvements in blood lipids and blood force per unit area. [ten]
  • Of form, occasionally a written report will generate headlines because it found the opposite result. For example, one written report of Swedish women who ate low-carbohydrate, loftier-poly peptide diets had higher rates of cardiovascular affliction and death than those who ate lower-protein, higher-sugar diets. [11] But the study, which assessed the women'south diets but once then followed them for 15 years, did non look at what types of carbohydrates or what sources of protein these women ate. That was of import because virtually of the women'southward protein came from brute sources.

Diabetes

Again, the source of poly peptide matters more than than protein quantity when information technology comes to diabetes take a chance. Eating more cherry-red meat predicts a college chance of blazon 2 diabetes, while consuming nuts, legumes, and poultry is related to lower chance.

• A 2011 written report constitute that people who ate diets high in blood-red meat, specially processed red meat, had a college risk of type 2 diabetes than those who rarely ate red or processed meat. [12] For each additional serving a day of cherry meat or processed red meat that study participants ate, their risk of diabetes rose 12% and 32%, respectively. Investigators also constitute that replacing a serving of ruddy meat with ane serving of nuts, depression-fat dairy products, or whole grains each day was associated with an estimated 16% to 35% lower take chances of type 2 diabetes.
• A related report also plant that people who started eating more than cerise meat than usual were had a 50% higher gamble of developing blazon ii diabetes during the adjacent four years, and researchers besides found that those who reduced ruby meat consumption had a 14% lower risk of type two diabetes over a 10-year follow-up period. [thirteen]
• How meat is cooked may also touch on blazon 2 diabetes risk. In a study that tracked the health of over 289,000 men and women, researchers plant that individuals who most oft ate ruby-red meats and craven cooked at high temperatures were 1.5 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes, compared to those who ate the to the lowest degree. There was also an increased risk of weight proceeds and developing obesity in the frequent users of high-temperature cooking methods, which may accept contributed to the development of diabetes. Of note, this research demonstrated that cooking methods might contribute to diabetes risk beyond the effects of meat consumption solitary. [xiv] Learn more about this report.
• More evidence that the source of protein matters comes from a 20-twelvemonth written report that looked at the human relationship between low-carbohydrate diets and blazon ii diabetes in women. Low-carbohydrate diets that were high in vegetable sources of fat and protein were associated with a lower take chances of type 2 diabetes. [15] Simply low-carbohydrate diets that were high in animate being sources of poly peptide or fat did non evidence this do good.
• For type ane diabetes (formerly chosen juvenile or insulin-dependent diabetes), proteins institute in cow's milk have been implicated in the development of the disease in babies with a predisposition to the disease, but research remains inconclusive. [sixteen,17]

Cancer

When it comes to cancer, once again, the source of protein seems to matter more quantity.

• In the Nurse'southward Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Report, every boosted serving per day of red meat or processed blood-red meat was associated with a 10% and 16% higher chance of cancer death, respectively. [5]
• In Oct 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO)'s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that consumption of processed meat is "carcinogenic to humans," and that consumption of red meat is "probably carcinogenic to humans." [18] The IARC Working Group (comprised of 22 scientists from ten countries) reached these conclusions from an evaluation of over 800 studies.
  • Conclusions were primarily based on the evidence for colorectal cancer. Information besides showed positive associations betwixt candy meat consumption and breadbasket cancer, and between red meat consumption and pancreatic and prostate cancer.
• A 2014 report besides found a link betwixt high consumption of red meat during adolescence and premenopausal breast cancer, while college intakes of poultry, basics, and legumes were associated with lower risk. Using data on the health of 89,000 women (aged 24 to 43) followed over a 20-yr catamenia, researchers found a 22% college hazard of breast cancer in those who ate 1.v servings of red meat per day while in loftier school, compared to those who only had i serving per week. Each additional daily serving of cherry-red meat seemed to increment the risk of breast cancer by another thirteen%.  [19]
• How meat is cooked may also have implications for cancer risk. High-temperature grilling creates potentially cancer-causing compounds in meat, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines. Acquire well-nigh tips for healthy grilling.

Premature death

• In 2016, researchers reviewed protein intakes of more than 131,000 women and men from the Nurses' Wellness Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Report. Afterward tracking their diets for up to 32 years, the authors establish that a higher intake of cerise meat, especially processed versions (sausage, bacon, hot dogs, salami), was linked to a modestly college risk of decease, while a college protein intake from establish foods carried a lower gamble. [ii] Acquire more than about this written report.

Bone wellness

• Digesting protein releases acids into the bloodstream, which the body usually neutralizes with calcium and other buffering agents. Equally a issue, early on inquiry theorized that eating lots of protein requires a lot more calcium – which may be pulled from os. A 2009 systematic review constitute that this doesn't appear to happen. [20]

Weight command

The aforementioned healthy poly peptide foods that are good choices for disease prevention may also aid with weight command. Over again, it's the source of protein that matters.

• Researchers at the Harvard Chan School of Public Health followed the diet and lifestyle habits of over 120,000 men and women for up to 20 years, looking at how pocket-size changes contributed to weight gain over fourth dimension. [21]
  • Those who ate more red and candy meat over the course of the report gained more weight, about one extra pound every 4 years, while those who ate more nuts over the form of the study gained less weight, nearly a half pound less every four years.
• A subsequent detailed assay of this cohort also found that eating red meat, craven with skin, and regular cheese was associated with greater weight gain. Yogurt, peanut butter, walnuts and other nuts, craven without skin, low-fat cheese, and seafood was associated with less weight gain. [22]
• Another written report showed that eating around one daily serving of beans, chickpeas, lentils or peas tin can increment fullness, which may atomic number 82 to better weight direction and weight loss. [23]

In that location's no need to go overboard on protein. Though some studies show benefits of loftier-protein, depression-carbohydrate diets in the short term (such as the paleo diet), fugitive fruits and whole grains means missing out on healthful cobweb, vitamins, minerals, and other phytonutrients.

Other considerations involving protein

• Specific proteins in nutrient and the surround are involved in food allergies, which are overreactions of the immune organization (take gluten and celiac disease, for example).
• Medical journals are also full of reports linking allergic responses to specific poly peptide sources with a variety of conditions (animate problems, chronic digestive issues, etc.). Eggs, fish, milk, peanuts, tree nuts, and soybeans crusade allergic reactions in some people.
• Individuals diagnosed with certain diseases (such as kidney and liver disease) need to monitor their protein intake co-ordinate to their physician's guidelines.
• Yous may have also heard that the employ of antibiotics in the production of animal-based foods has contributed to the emergence of "superbugs," or strains of bacteria resistant to currently bachelor antibiotics. In 2016, the FDA appear a voluntary program to limit the routine use of antibiotics in food production (such as giving antibiotics to healthy animals to aid them abound faster). [24] As a consumer, you may want to detect products "raised without antibiotics" if you plan on eating meat. Some companies characteristic this linguistic communication on the packaging, others don't.

Protein Foods and the Planet

Just equally unlike foods tin can have differing impacts on homo wellness, they likewise have differing impacts on the environment. Agriculture is a major correspondent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, the accumulation of which is driving climate change at a rate unprecedented in homo history. However, not all foods take an equal touch on. Production of animal-based foods tends to take college GHG emissions than producing plant-based foods—and dairy and specially ruddy meat (particularly beef, lamb, and goat) stand up out for their disproportionate affect.

Source: World Resource Institute, www.wri.org/proteinscorecard

To give you an idea, this "scorecard" from the World Resources Institute illustrates the differing GHG emissions per gram of poly peptide from both animal and plant-based protein foods. [25] Making just one pound (454 grams) of lamb generates 5 times more than GHGs than making a pound of chicken and effectually thirty times more than making a pound of lentils. [26] In the U.S. alone, beef accounts for 36% of all food-related GHG emissions. [27] Beyond emissions, information technology'south likewise important to note that nutrient production places an enormous demand upon our natural resources, as agriculture is a major contributor to deforestation, species extinction, and freshwater depletion and contamination.

Learn more than about the impacts of different foods on your plate.

Lesser Line

Poly peptide is a key part of any diet. The average person needs about 7 grams of protein every twenty-four hour period for every 20 pounds of trunk weight. Considering poly peptide is found in an affluence of foods, many people can hands encounter this goal. Even so, non all poly peptide "packages" are created equal. Because foods contain a lot more than protein, information technology's important to pay attention to what else is coming with it. That's why the Healthy Eating Plate encourages choosing healthy protein foods.

Building off this general guidance, here are some additional details and tips for shaping your nutrition with the best poly peptide choices:

• Get your protein from plants when possible . Eating legumes (beans and peas), nuts, seeds, whole grains, and other plant-based sources of protein is a win for your health and the health of the planet. If most of your protein comes from plants, brand sure that you mix upwardly your sources and then no "essential" components of poly peptide are missing. The proficient news is that the institute kingdom offers enough of options to mix and match. Here are some examples for each category:
  • Legumes: lentils, beans (adzuki, black, fava, chickpeas/garbanzo, kidney,  lima, mung, pinto etc.), peas (green, snow, snap, split, etc.), edamame/soybeans (and products made from soy: tofu, tempeh, etc.), peanuts.
  • Nuts and Seeds: almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, hemp seeds, squash and pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, flax seeds, sesame seeds, chia seeds.
  • Whole Grains: kamut, teff, wheat, quinoa, rice, wild rice, millet, oats, buckwheat,
  • Other: while many vegetables and fruits contain some level of protein, it'due south generally in smaller amounts than the other establish-based foods. Some examples with higher poly peptide quantities include corn, broccoli, asparagus, brussels sprouts, and artichokes.

• Upgrade your sources of animal protein . Because the protein packet is specially important when information technology comes to beast-based foods:
  • Generally, poultry (chicken, turkey, duck) and a diverseness of seafood (fish, crustaceans, mollusks) are your best bet. Eggs can be a good choice, too.
  • If y'all enjoy dairy foods, information technology's best to do so in moderation (think closer to i-ii servings a day; and incorporating yogurt is probably a meliorate choice than getting all your servings from milk or cheese).
  • Cherry-red meat—which includes unprocessed beef, pork, lamb, veal, mutton, and goat meat—should be consumed on a more limited ground. If you lot enjoy red meat, consider eating information technology in small amounts or only on special occasions.
  • Processed meats, such every bit salary, hot dogs, sausages, and cold cuts should be avoided. Although these products are often made from cerise meats, processed meats also include items similar turkey bacon, chicken sausage, and deli-sliced chicken and ham. (Candy meat refers to any meat that has been "transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation." [18])

Looking to reduce red and processed meats, simply unsure where to get-go? Here are a few approaches to cutting-back while keeping your meals satiating and flavorful. Simply find your "starting point" and move forwards with the strategies that work for you:

Consume less meat, enjoy more variety

This arroyo boosts good for you plant-based foods like beans, basics, whole grains, and other veggies, while still providing ways to incorporate some of your favorite animal-based foods.

Test your poly peptide knowledge!

Ready to meet how much you know about poly peptide and healthy protein foods? Try this 10 question quiz to find out:

References

1. National Academies of Medicine.Dietary Reference Intakes for Free energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients).
2. Song Chiliad, Fung TT, Hu FB, Willett WC, Longo VD, Chan AT, Giovannucci EL. Association of animate being and constitute poly peptide intake with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. JAMA internal medicine. 2016 October 1;176(x):1453-63.
3. Fehrenbach KS, Righter Air conditioning, Santo RE. A critical examination of the bachelor data sources for estimating meat and protein consumption in the U.s.. Public health diet. 2016 Jun;19(eight):1358-67.
4. Bernstein AM, Sun Q, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Willett WC. Major dietary protein sources and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation. 2010 Aug 31;122(9):876-83.
5. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and bloodshed: results from ii prospective cohort studies. Athenaeum of internal medicine. 2012 Apr 9;172(7):555-63.
6. Bernstein AM, Pan A, Rexrode KM, Stampfer M, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D, Willett WC. Dietary poly peptide sources and the gamble of stroke in men and women. Stroke. 2011 Jan 1:STROKEAHA-111.
7. Preis SR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Rimm EB. Dietary protein and risk of ischemic middle disease in middle-anile men–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2010 Sep 29;92(v):1265-72.
8. Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu S, Manson JE, Albert CM, Rexrode Thousand, Hu FB. Depression-carbohydrate-diet score and the run a risk of coronary eye disease in women. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006 November 9;355(19):1991-2002.
9. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Obarzanek E, Young man JF, Miller ER, Conlin PR, Erlinger TP, Rosner BA, Laranjo NM, Charleston J. Furnishings of protein, monounsaturated fatty, and sugar intake on blood force per unit area and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA. 2005 Nov 16;294(19):2455-64.
10. Jenkins DJ, Wong JM, Kendall CW, Esfahani A, Ng VW, Leong TC, Faulkner DA, Vidgen Eastward, Greaves KA, Paul Chiliad, Vocaliser Westward. The consequence of a plant-based low-carbohydrate ("Eco-Atkins") nutrition on body weight and claret lipid concentrations in hyperlipidemic subjects. Archives of internal medicine. 2009 Jun eight;169(11):1046-54.
11. Lagiou P, Sandin S, Lof Thousand, Trichopoulos D, Adami HO, Weiderpass E. Low carbohydrate-high protein diet and incidence of cardiovascular diseases in Swedish women: prospective accomplice study. BMJ. 2012 Jun 26;344:e4026.
12. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and chance of blazon ii diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-assay–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2011 Aug 10;94(4):1088-96.
13. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in crimson meat consumption and subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: iii cohorts of United states of america men and women. JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(xiv):1328-35.
14. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in ruby meat consumption and subsequent adventure of type two diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of US men and women.JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(xiv):1328-35.
15. Halton TL, Liu Due south, Manson JE, Hu FB. Depression-carbohydrate-diet score and chance of type 2 diabetes in women–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2008 Feb ane;87(2):339-46.
16. Åkerblom HK, Vaarala O, Hyöty H, Ilonen J, Knip M. Environmental factors in the etiology of type 1 diabetes. American journal of medical genetics. 2002 May 30;115(1):18-29.
17. Vaarala O, Ilonen J, Ruohtula T, Pesola J, Virtanen SM, Härkönen T, Koski M, Kallioinen H, Tossavainen O, Poussa T, Järvenpää AL. Removal of bovine insulin from cow's milk formula and early initiation of beta-prison cell autoimmunity in the FINDIA airplane pilot study. Athenaeum of pediatrics & adolescent medicine. 2012 Jul 1;166(seven):608-14.
18. Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, Grosse Y, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha Northward, Mattock H, Straif K. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and candy meat. The Lancet Oncology. 2015 Dec 1;sixteen(16):1599-600.
19. Farvid MS, Cho E, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Adolescent meat intake and breast cancer risk. International journal of cancer. 2015 Apr xv;136(8):1909-20.
20. Darling AL, Millward DJ, Torgerson DJ, Hewitt CE, Lanham-New SA. Dietary protein and bone health: a systematic review and meta-analysis–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2009 Nov 4;ninety(6):1674-92.
21. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in nutrition and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. New England Periodical of Medicine. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2392-404.
22. Smith JD, Hou T, Ludwig DS, Rimm EB, Willett W, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D. Changes in intake of protein foods, saccharide amount and quality, and long-term weight change: results from 3 prospective cohorts–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015 Apr 8;101(6):1216-24.
23. Li SS, Kendall CW, de Souza RJ, Jayalath VH, Cozma AI, Ha V, Mirrahimi A, Chiavaroli Fifty, Augustin LS, Blanco Mejia S, Leiter LA. Dietary pulses, satiety and food intake: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of acute feeding trials. Obesity. 2014 Aug;22(8):1773-fourscore.
24. Food and Drug Administration. FDA's Strategy on Antimicrobial Resistance – Questions and Answers. https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/guidancecomplianceenforcement/guidanceforindustry/ucm216939.htm. Accessed on eleven/half dozen/2018.
25. World Resources Institute.Protein Scorecard. https://www.wri.org/resources/information-visualizations/protein-scorecard. Accessed on 11/6/2018.
26. Culinary Institute of America and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Menus of Change: 2016 Annual Written report.http://world wide web.menusofchange.org/
27. Heller MC, Keoleian GA. Greenhouse gas emission estimates of US dietary choices and food loss. Journal of Industrial Ecology. 2015 Jun;19(3):391-401.
28. Guasch-Ferré G, Satija A, Blondin Due south, Janiszewski 1000, Emlen E, O'Connor L, Campbell W, Hu F, Willett W, Stampfer M. Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials of Ruddy Meat Consumption in Comparison With Various Comparison Diets on Cardiovascular Risk Factors. Circulation. 2019 April 1;139(15):1828-45.
    *Disclosures: Dr. Hu has received research support from the California Walnut Commission. Dr. Campbell reported receiving research back up from the National Institutes of Wellness (T32 Fellowship for Lauren O'Connor), the American Egg Lath – The Egg Diet Eye, The Beef Checkoff Programme, The National Dairy Council, The Pork Checkoff Program, and the Barilla Group. Dr. Campbell also reported serving on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Informational Committee. Dr. Satija is an employee of Analysis Group, Inc. The other authors declare no conflicts.

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